| Land
and resources Romania is roughly oval in shape, with a maximum extent
east to west of about 740 km (about 460 mi) and north to south about 475 km (about
295 mi). The topography is varied. The Transylvanian Basin, or Plateau, which
occupies central Romania, is very hilly for the most part, but also has wide valleys
and extensive arable slopes. It is almost completely surrounded by mountains.
The Carpathian's enclose it on the north and east. Moldoveanul (2543 m/8343 ft),
the highest peak in the country, is in the Transylvanian Alps, to the south, which
continues south to the Danube gorge as the Banat Mountains. A smaller group of
ranges, the Bihor Mountains, is west of the basin. The remaining areas of Romania
are predominantly lowlands. In the west are the lowlands of the Tisza Plain, which
are usually referred to as the Banat, adjacent to the Yugoslavia border, and Crisana-Maramures,
adjacent to Hungary. The most extensive plains are the lowlands of Walachia, located
between the Transylvanian Alps and Bulgaria, and of Moldova, east of the Carpathian
Mountains. Bordering the Black Sea in the extreme east and forming part of Dobrogea,
is a low plateau, which continues south into Bulgaria. The most important river
of Romania is the Danube. It demarcates the eastern part of the boundary with
Yugoslavia, and most of the boundary with Bulgaria. The valley of the lower course
of the Danube and the Danube delta are very swampy but also very atractive . Other
important rivers, all part of the Danube system, are the Mures, Prut, Olt, and
Siret. Romania has many small, freshwater mountain lakes, but the largest lakes
are saline lagoons on the coast of the Black Sea; the largest of these is Lake
Razelm.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Climate
The Transylvanian Basin, the Carpathian Mountains, and the western
lowlands have warm summers and cold winters with recorded temperature extremes
ranging between 37.8 grades Celsius (100 Fahrenheit) and -31.7 grades Celsius
(-25 Fahrenheit). The Walachian, Moldavian, and Dobrujan lowlands have hotter
summers and occasionally experience periods of severe cold in winter; recorded
extremes in Bucharest and the lowlands are 38.9 grades Celsius (102 Fahrenheit)
and -23.9 grades Celsius (-11 Fahrenheit). Rainfall averages 508 mm (20 in) on
the plains and from 508 mm to 1016 mm (20 in to 40 in) on the mountains and is
concentrated in the warmer half of the year.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Natural
resources The principal resources of Romania are agricultural, but
the country also has significant mineral deposits, particularly petroleum, natural
gas, salt, coal, lignite, iron ore, copper, bauxite, manganese, lead, and zinc.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Plants
and animals Wooded steppe, now largely cleared for agriculture, predominate
in the plains of Walachia and Moldova. Fruit trees are common in the foothills
of the mountains. On the lower slopes are found forests of such deciduous trees
as birch, beech, and oak. The forests of the higher altitudes are coniferous,
consisting largely of pine and spruce trees. Above the timberline (approximately
1750 m/5740 ft), the flora is alpine. Wild animal life is abundant in most parts
of Romania. The larger animals, found chiefly in the Carpathian Mountains, include
the wild boar, wolf, lynx, fox, bear, chamois, roe deer, and goat. In the plains,
typical animals are the squirrel, hare, badger, and polecat. Many species of birds
are abundant; the Danube delta region, now partly a nature preserve, is a stopover
point for migratory birds. Among species of fish found in the rivers and offshore
are pike, sturgeon, carp, flounder, herring, salmon, perch, and eel.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Soil
The soils in most parts of the country of Romania are fertile. In western
Romania, the soil consists largely of the decomposition products of limestone.
Chernozem, or black earth, highly suited to cereal culture, predominates in the
eastern part of the country
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Population
Ethnic Distribution The Romanians Historically,
the Romanians are descendants of two very old peoples: The Dacians and The Romans.
The Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of the land. Due to the legendary richness
of this region, Dacia was a great temptation for the Roman Emperors. But Dacia
was not easy to conquer, and general after general had to bow in front of the
brave natives. Finally, the Emperor Traianus conquered the country in A.D.106.
The celebration of the victory lasted 123 days. 7 years later, Traianus erected
a monument depicting his victory, which is called Traianus's Column and still
stands in Rome. By the mixing of the two peoples, the Romanian people emerged.
As a proof of Rome's powerful influence, not only the land was later called Romania,
but also, the Romanian language evolved from Latin. The Minorities The
Hungarians, being the largest minority in Romania, have a particularly strong
community that tries to preserve the Hungarian traditions and culture. Although
Transylvania was a matter of dispute between Romanians and Hungarians over the
centuries, and despite some political interests, the two nationalities always
found a peaceful way of living together. The Transylvanian Germans
have a unique history. Descendants of the original german colonists that came
to Transylvania in the 12-th Century, they developed a strong and wealthy community,
that flourished during the Middle Ages. They built some of the largest cities
in the region, such as Sibiu, Sighisoara, Brasov. Out of a population of tens
of thousands, only very few remain today, most of them fleeing from communist
represion or going for a better life after the democratic changes of 1989. Nevertheless,
most of those who left still consider themselves Transylvanians and dream of their
homeland. The Turkish community lives in the Southeastern part of
the country, near the Black Sea coast. They are the reminder of an age-old Turkish
supremacy in the Balkans - the Ottoman Empire. Their mosques in the cities of
Constanta and Mangalia are nowadays a major tourist attraction. One local story
says that children often go looking here for the flying rugs of the Arabian Nights.
The Ukrainians, who live in the Northermost region of Romania, near
the border, are famous for their painted Easter Eggs, an age old tradition kept
alive by old women. The Russian minority live in the Danube Delta.
They call themselves "Lipoveni" and are very different from the typical
Russians. Due to the remoteness of their land, they lost all contacts with Russia.
Still, they love drinking vodka. The Lipoveni are traditionally fishermen, and
know by heart the intricate maze of canals of the Delta. Naturally, they gave
Romania a multiple Olympic and World Champion in canoeing - Ivan Patzaikin. The
Serbs, living near the border with former Yugoslavia are famous for their
colorful traditional costumes and music. The Gypsies once an exotic
nation of wanderers, are trying now to find their place in the modern world: they
have representation in the Romanian Parliament. Nevertheless, as a reminder of
their old ways, they still have an Emperor and a King. Population Characteristics
The population of Romania (1993 estimate) was around 23,000,000. Population
density was about 100 persons per sq km (about 260 per sq mi). The population
was about 40% rural.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Political
divisions and main cities The country is divided into 40 districts
and the municipality of Bucharest. Bucharest is the capital and largest city of
Romania, with a population of 2,389,800 (1993 estimate), and it is also the main
industrial and commercial center of the country. Other major cities (with 1986
estimate populations) are Constanta (327,700), a port on the Black Sea; Brasov
(351,500), noted for the manufacture of textiles, chemicals, and metal products;
Timisoara (325,300), an industrial center; Iasi (313,100), a commercial center;
Cluj-Napoca (310,000), a commercial and industrial center; Galati (295,400), a
naval and metallurgical center; Craiova (281,000), a textile, electrical, and
chemical center; and Ploiesti (234,900), hub of the oil industry.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Religion
and language The largest religious organization of Romania is the Romanian
Orthodox Church, to which 70 to 80% of Romanians adhere. In addition, the country
has substantial numbers of Roman Catholics, predominantly the Hungarian and German
minorities of Transylvania; Protestants of various denominations; Jews, primarily
in Bucharest; and Muslims, mainly among the Tatar and Turkish minorities. The
official language is Romanian (see Romanian Language), one of the Romance languages,
spoken by more than 85% of the population. Other languages spoken include Hungarian,
German, Turkish, Serbo-Croatian, and Yiddish.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Education
Primary education in Romania is free and compulsory for children between
the ages of 6 and 15, and most students choose to continue their education beyond
the age of 16. Illiteracy has been virtually eliminated. The educational system
heavily emphasizes practical and technical studies. Elementary and Secondary
Schools In the late 1980s some 3 million children were enrolled in
Romania's 13,900 primary schools, and some 1.2 million students attended 980 secondary
schools. In addition, the country had 760 vocational secondary schools with 278,000
students. Universities and Colleges Some 157,000 students
annually attended institutions of higher learning in the late 1980s. Romania has
seven general universities, including the University of Bucharest ,the University
of Cluj-Napoca ,and the University of 'Al. I. Cuza' of Iasi. In addition, Romania
has four technological universities. Under the Ceausescu government, university
admission usually depended on participation in Communist youth organizations and
a stipulated period of work experience in industry or agriculture.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Culture
Romanian culture is largely derived from the Roman, with strains of
Slavic, Magyar (Hungarian), Greek, and Turkish influence. Poems, folktales, and
folk music have always held a central place in Romanian culture. Romanian literature,
art, and music attained maturity in the 19th century. Although Romania has been
influenced by divergent Western trends, the culture remains fundamentally indigenous.
Literature Romanian literature is rich and varied and may
be roughly divided into five periods. The literature from the 15th to 18th centuries
was primarily religious. The dominant literary form in the 18th century was history,
and a number of major works promoted the idea of the Latinity of the origins and
language of the Romanian people. In the century before World War I, Romanian literature
reached maturity and reflected national unity. A major figure of the period was
Vasile Alecsandri (1821-90), a narrative poet and dramatist. Others whose work
had a profound influence on later writers included the romantic poet Mihail Eminescu
(1850-89) and Ion Luca Caragiale (1852-1912), a dramatist whose plays satirized
the bourgeois life of the late 19th century. Between World War I and World War
II, Romanian literature largely dealt with national themes, and the novel first
came into the foreground. The most outstanding novelist was Mihail Sadoveanu (1880-1961).
From the late 1940s through the 1980s, the literature was characterized by Soviet
realism except for a brief period in the late 1960s when cultural controls were
relaxed. The Romanian-born playwright Eugˆne Ionesco became famous after World
War II while living in France. Art and Music Romanian art,
like Romanian literature, reached its peak during the 19th century. Among the
leading painters were Theodor Aman (1831-91), a portraitist, and the landscape
painter Nicolae Grigorescu (1838-1907). Romanian art during the 1945-90 period
was dominated by Soviet realism. A notable contribution to modern concepts of
20th century art was the work of the Romanian-born French sculptor Constantin
Brancusi. A number of Romanian musicians achieved international recognition in
the 20th century. Most notable among them were Georges Enesco, violinist and composer,
who is perhaps best known for his Romanian rhapsodies, and pianist Dinu Lipatti
(1917-50). Libraries and Museums The principal libraries
are the Central State Library and the Library of the Academy of Romania, both
in Bucharest. The Art Museum of Romania, in Bucharest, contains fine collections
of national, Western, and Oriental art. Many other museums of art are located
throughout the country.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Economy
Primarily agricultural before World War II, the Romanian economy was
subsequently transformed through a series of 5-year plans and is now dominated
by manufacturing; among the consequences of an emphasis on heavy industry were
chronic shortages of consumer goods and severe degradation of the environment.
In the late 1980s the gross national product (GNP) was estimated by Western analysts
at $151.3 billion, or about $6570 per capita. After the overthrow of the Ceausescu
regime in December 1989, the domestic economy virtually collapsed, and exports
plummeted. Economic reform programs introduced in 1990 called for devaluation
of the currency, removal of subsidies on most consumer goods, and privatization
of state-owned companies in order to move Romania toward a free-market system.
Agriculture About 65% of the total area of Romania is used
for pasturage and cultivation, which in the late 1980s employed about 29% of the
civilian labor force. Almost 90% of the land was worked as collective farms that
in the mid-1980s numbered about 3745 and larger state farms that numbered about
420. Because of government emphasis on industrial development, agricultural improvements
and investments were neglected, and food shortages developed in the 1980s. In
the late 1980s the principal crops included corn, with an annual yield of 19.5
million metric tons; wheat, 9 million tons; sugar beets, 6.5 million tons; potatoes,
8 million tons; sunflower seeds, 1.1 million tons; grapes, 2.2 million tons; and
a wide range of other fruits. Its extensive vineyards make Romania a major wine
producer. In the late 1980s Romanian livestock included some 7.1 million cattle,
15.2 million hogs, 18.8 million sheep, and 142 million poultry. Forestry
and Fishing Forests, covering approximately 27% of the total land area,
are state property. Production totaled about 24.6 million cu m (about 869 million
cu ft) annually in the late 1980s. The Black Sea and the Danube delta regions
are known for their sturgeon catch, and the country undertakes considerable fishing
operations in the Atlantic Ocean. In the late 1980s the yearly catch totaled about
264,400 metric tons. Mining The principal mineral resource
of Romania is petroleum. In the late 1980s annual crude-oil production was about
76.6 million barrels and that of natural gas, about 38.9 billion cu m (about 1.4
trillion cu ft). The leading petroleum center is Ploieþti, and important
new deposits were found under the Black Sea in the early 1980s. The western part
of the Transylvanian Alps has deposits of bituminous coal and iron ore, and the
country also has scattered lignite deposits. Annual coal production in the late
1980s was about 47.3 million metric tons. Iron-ore production totaled some 2.3
million tons. Large salt deposits in the Carpathians yielded more than 5 million
tons annually. Manufacturing Romania pursued a policy of
rapid industrialization after World War II, with an emphasis on heavy industry
(especially machinery and chemicals) and, to a much lesser extent, on consumer
goods. Crude steel production reached about 13.9 million metric tons in the late
1980s. Other major manufactures were chemical fertilizers (about 2.9 million metric
tons annually); cement (12.4 million tons); radio and television receivers; automobiles;
processed food; rubber goods; cotton, woolen, and silk fabrics; clothing; footwear;
and refrigerators. Energy In the late 1980s Romania annually
produced about 73.1 billion kwh of electricity, up from 35.8 billion kwh in 1970.
About 83% was produced in thermal installations burning petroleum, natural gas,
and low-grade coal, and virtually all of the rest was generated by hydroelectric
facilities, of which the largest was the Iron Gates I project (owned jointly with
Yugoslavia) on the Danube. Persistent energy shortages in the mid-1980s led to
the rationing of electricity. Rationing was also imposed on fossil fuels, which
Romania was exporting in order to earn badly needed foreign exchange revenues.
Currency and Banking The basic monetary unit of Romania is
the leu, divided into 100 bani; the leu was devalued in October 1990 to an official
rate of 35 equal U.S.$1. All banking institutions were nationalized by the Communist
government. The National Bank (1880) is the bank of issue and supervises the financial
activities of all state enterprises. Romania also has an agricultural bank, an
investment bank, and savings and deposit banks. Foreign Trade From
the mid-1940s through the 1980s, foreign trade in Romania was a state monopoly.
Exports were about $11.4 billion per year in the late 1980s; the principal items
included fuels, machinery, furniture, textile products, and chemicals. Imports,
valued at about $12.5 billion annually, included crude petroleum and industrial
equipment. The Soviet Union and other Communist nations were Romania's leading
trade partners, but Romania also had significantly increased its trade with West
Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic of Germany), Italy, Switzerland,
the United States, Great Britain, and Egypt since the early 1970s.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Transportation
Romania has about 11,275 km (about 7005 mi) of railroad track and about
72,800 km (about 45,235 mi) of roads. The principal seaports are Constanta, on
the Black Sea, and Galati and Braila, neighbors on the lower Danube; Giurgiu,
which has pipeline connections to the Ploieþti oil fields, is an important
river port. A canal, opened in 1984, links Constanta with Cernavoda, a Danube
River port. The merchant fleet has a total displacement of about 5.4 million deadweight
tons. The state airlines TAROM and LAR link Bucharest with other Romanian and
foreign cities.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Communications
Postal, telegraph, and telephone services in Romania are state owned.
In the late 1980s the country had some 2 million telephones in service. In addition,
about 3.2 million radios and 3.9 million television receivers were licensed. The
country had about 495 newspapers and periodicals, 52 of which served the non-Romanian
minorities.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Labor
In the late 1980s the Romanian work force numbered about 10.7 million
persons, about 70% of whom were members of workers' organizations that were affiliated
with the General Trade Union Confederation.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Trade
relations While the USSR and the Eastern European states were the primary
Romanian trade partners in the 1960s, trade and diplomatic relations with the
non-Communist world improved steadily. In January 1967 Romania became the only
Communist nation other than the USSR to establish full diplomatic relations with
West Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic of Germany), and at about
the same time the first Communist nation to open consular relations with Spain.
Trade with the Soviet Union, which had accounted for more than 50 percent of Romanian
foreign trade in the late 1950s, was reduced to an estimated 30 percent in 1967.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Government
Romania was governed according to a constitution adopted in August
1965, as amended. After the Ceausescu regime was toppled in December 1989, the
Council of National Salvation, consisting predominantly of former Communists,
wielded executive power. Presidential and legislative elections were held in May
1990. A new constitution approved by popular referendum in December 1991 declared
Romania to be a multiparty presidential republic and guaranteed human rights and
a free-market economy. Executive and Legislature Under the
1965 constitution, executive power was theoretically vested in the Grand National
Assembly, which only met for short sessions. Between assembly sessions, executive
power rested with the State Council, which was elected by the Grand National Assembly
from among its members and was headed by the president, who was also head of state
and leader of the Communist party. The interim government elected in May 1990
consisted of a president and a bicameral parliament, directly elected by universal
suffrage. The lower house, or national assembly, had 387 seats, including 10 guaranteed
for national minorities; the upper house, or senate, had 119 seats. Judiciary
The supreme court is Romania's highest judicial authority, and its
members supervise the lower courts. Lesser tribunals include district and local
courts.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Defense
Military service is compulsory for all men for a period of 16 months
in the army or air force or two years in the navy. In the late 1980s the armed
forces numbered 171,000, of whom 128,000 were in the army, about 9000 in the navy,
and 34,000 in the air force. The Securitate, a well-armed secret police force
loyal to Ceausescu, was subordinated to the army after the 1989 uprising.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- History
The territory that is modern Romania first appeared in history as the
greater part of the Roman province of Dacia, conquered by Emperor Trajan about
ad 106. Most of its inhabitants, known as the Daci, had originally emigrated from
Thrace in northern Greece. Roman colonists were sent into the province, and Rome
developed the area considerably, building roads, bridges, and a great wall, its
ruins still visible, from the present Black Sea port of Constanta across the Dobruja
(Dobrogea) region to the Danube River. During the 3d century ad, raids by the
Goths became so grave a menace that the Roman legions were withdrawn across the
Danube. While successive waves of invaders, including Goths, Huns, Slavs, and
Bulgars, made Dacia a battleground, the Romanized population preserved a Latin
speech and identity. Gradually, through intermarriage and assimilation with Slavonic
tribes, these people developed into a distinct ethnic group, called Walachians
or, in Slavonic, Vlachs, whose nomadic and warlike customs became a constant threat
to the neighboring Byzantine Empire. Under Bulgarian rule, in the 9th century,
the Orthodox form of Christianity was introduced. About the end of the 13th century
Hungarian expansion by Magyars drove many of the people from the western provinces
to settle south and east of the Carpathians. Here they established the principalities
of Walachia and later that of Moldavia, each ruled by native princes, or voivodes
(Russian voevoda, ôleader of an armyö), many of whom acknowledged the
suzerainty of the kings of Hungary or Poland. With the defeat of the Hungarians
by the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Mohßcs in 1526, Moldavia and Walachia
came under Turkish rule, which lasted for three centuries. At the close of the
16th century the two principalities were temporarily united by Prince Michael
of Walachia (reigned 1593-1601), who made continual war on the Turkish sultan
in an attempt to gain and maintain independence. For a time Michael successfully
opposed the Ottomans; he conquered Transylvania in 1599 and Moldavia in 1600,
but he was assassinated the following year, and the spirit of independence waned.
The Ottomans restored their control of the principalities after Michael's death,
imposing severe political restrictions. Finally the Romanians turned to Russia
for help. Because of the decline of Turkish power and the growing influence of
Russia in the early 18th century, the Ottoman government established the so-called
Phanariot system. Moldavia and Walachia were ruled through Turkish-appointed hospodars
(Old Slav gospodŒ, ôlordö), usually members of Greek families from
Constantinople. Many Romanian boyars, or nobles, allied themselves with ruling
Greek families, and Greek became the official language. Russian influence became
preeminent after 1750 and remained so for a century. In 1774 Russia defeated Turkey,
which was then forced to promise lenient treatment of Moldavia and Walachia. In
1802 Russia obtained a voice in the appointment of hospodars, and in 1812, having
again defeated Turkey in the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-12, obtained Bessarabia,
which had previously been part of the principality of Moldavia. The weakening
of Turkish influence became more evident after the start of the Greek War of Independence
in 1821. By the Treaty of Adrianople, which ended the Greek war in 1829, the principalities,
although remaining nominally under Turkish control, became more autonomous. The
Phanariot system was ended, and Russia became the unacknowledged suzerain of the
two states, a situation disapproved of by the great European powers, which had
begun to intervene in Balkan affairs during the Greek war. Unification
and Independence After the Russian defeat in the Crimean War, the powers
ended the Russian protectorate and returned part of Bessarabia to Moldavia. Under
the joint control of France, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Turkey,
the question of union became a major concern. It was resolved by Walachia and
Moldavia themselves when, in 1859, Colonel Alexandru Ion Cuza (1820-73) was elected
as the common prince. In 1861 the two states were united and recognized by the
Turkish sultan as the autonomous principality of Romania. A single ministry and
legislature were established at Bucharest. Prince Alexandru Ion I was deposed
by a conspiracy in 1866. A provisional government then elected Prince Karl Eitel
Friedrich of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who took office as Carol I and was invested
as hereditary prince by the sultan. A constitution based on the Belgian charter
of 1831 was adopted on his arrival. Carol entered the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78
as a Russian ally and proclaimed the complete independence of Romania. The Congress
of Berlin in 1878 recognized Romanian independence, but Romania was forced to
restore its part of Bessarabia to Russia. In 1881 Romania proclaimed itself a
kingdom. Neutral during the First Balkan War against Turkey in 1912, Romania joined
Serbia and Greece in the Second Balkan War (1913) against Bulgaria in 1913. By
the Treaty of Bucharest on August 10, 1913, Romania obtained the southern Dobruja
region, which its army had occupied, and thus became the largest Balkan power.
World War I When war began, Carol, despite his friendship
with Austria, declared Romania neutral. The king's death, in October 1914, placed
his nephew Ferdinand I on the throne. The kingdom was officially neutral until
1916, when Romanian forces invaded Hungarian Transylvania, but Austro-German and
Bulgarian armies shattered Romanian power in less than six months and by the end
of January 1917 controlled most of the country. With the triumph of the Allies
in November 1918, however, Romania reentered the war on November 10 and reoccupied
Transylvania and other territories. By the treaties of Saint Germain (with Austria)
and Trianon (with Hungary), Romania was awarded sovereignty over most of Bukovina,
all of Transylvania, a strip of the Hungarian plain west of the Transylvanian
uplands (Criþana-Maramures), and the northeastern portion of the Banat,
a total of 133,765 sq km (51,647 sq mi). Romania also occupied Bessarabia and
was confirmed in its position there by the Allies, although Russia refused to
acknowledge Romanian sovereignty of the area. As a result of the postwar settlements,
Romania more than doubled its area. After World War I the Romanian government
struggled with domestic problems of constitutional reform, agrarian reform, and
lagging economic reconstruction. The Liberal party was in power, led by Ion Br tianu,
who from 1922 to 1926, and again in 1927, was virtually dictator. A new constitution
was adopted in 1923; one of its provisions was the political emancipation of the
Jews. Peasant opposition to the Liberal government and the regime's dictatorial
policies caused almost constant political discord, however. In foreign relations,
dissension continued with the Soviet Union concerning the ownership of Bessarabia.
In 1925 the crown prince renounced his right to the throne, preferring to live
in exile with his mistress, Magda Lupescu (1896?-1977); his son Michael (1921-
) was declared heir-apparent and succeeded to the throne in 1927, with his uncle
as regent. In 1928 opposition to the policies of Bratianu resulted in the rise
to power of the National Peasants' party, under the leadership of Iuliu Maniu
(1873-1953), with a program of reform, decentralization of government, and extended
popular representation. Maniu became premier in 1928 and supported the exiled
crown prince, who returned to Bucharest in 1930 as King Carol II, despite bitter
opposition by the Liberals. Economic conditions within Romania became increasingly
grave. Political dissension was heightened by the growth of a native Romanian
Fascist party, the so-called Iron Guard, under Corneliu Zelea-Codreanu (1899?-1938).
A growing tendency toward fascism in government was evidenced by severe anti-Jewish
laws, rigid censorship, and attempts by King Carol to make himself dictator, in
which he ultimately succeeded (1938). World War II Although
Romania was initially neutral in World War II, its internal policies aligned it
with the Axis powers and led to a policy of friendship toward Germany. In June
1940, without opposition from Germany, with which it had signed a nonaggression
pact in August 1939, the Soviet Union occupied Bessarabia and northern Bukovina.
On August 20, at the demand of Germany and Italy, Romania ceded 44,988 sq km (17,370
sq mi) of Transylvania to Hungary, and on September 7, southern Dobruja was ceded
to Bulgaria. The German army occupied Romania under the pretext of protecting
the oil fields from British attack. In the ensuing unrest Carol named General
Ion Antonescu, a sympathizer with the Iron Guard, as dictator. The king was forced
to abdicate on September 6, 1940, and he left the country. Carol's successor,
Michael, was king only in name, the real power being held by General Antonescu
and the Iron Guard. Popular riots were met with massacres. Romania, led by Antonescu,
entered World War II in June 1941 by attacking the Soviet Union at the same time
as Germany did. Romanian troops reoccupied Bessarabia and Bukovina and by October
1941 had penetrated as far as Odessa. In December the kingdom declared war on
the United States. Opposition to Antonescu and political unrest continued, led
on one hand by the anti-German Iron Guard and on the other by the National Peasants'
party. The swift Soviet advance in the spring of 1944 brought the Red army back
to Bessarabia and Bukovina and deep into Romanian territory. Aided by the imminent
arrival of Soviet troops, King Michael and several loyal generals led a coup on
the night of August 23, arrested Antonescu and his cabinet, and announced the
surrender of Romania. On September 12, the Soviet Union signed an armistice with
Romania in Moscow. A so-called Democratic Front government, approved by the USSR,
took over Romanian administration as a coalition of Communist, Liberal, and National
Peasants' parties. Gradually the Communist party acquired supreme control. In
March 1945 a coalition cabinet was formed under Petru Groza (1884-1958), leader
of the Plowmen's party (a splinter group of the National Peasants), with the key
positions held by Communists. In January 1946, at the request of the Council of
Foreign Ministers (Great Britain, United States, USSR), two opposition members
were added, but they had little voice. On official pledges by the Romanian government
that free elections would be held, the United States and Great Britain recognized
the government on February 5. The results of the election on November 19, 1946,
were declared fraudulent by the various opposition parties, who received a total
of 66 out of 414 seats. On December 30, 1947, King Michael abdicated under Communist
pressure, and the government at once proclaimed Romania a people's republic and
vested supreme authority in a five-member state council. A new constitution was
adopted on April 13, 1948, based on that of the USSR. By the peace treaty signed
in Paris on February 10, 1947, between Romania and the Allies, northern Transylvania
was returned to Romania, and the other land transfers of 1940 were validated.
Reparations to the Soviet Union of $300 million in raw materials, machinery, sea
and river craft, and other commodities were designed to be paid within eight years
but were reduced by half in 1948. The peace treaty also limited the strength of
the Romanian armed forces and stipulated that the Romanian people should enjoy
all personal liberties. Soviet Influence The reorganization
of Romanian cultural institutions to conform with Soviet models was the chief
domestic development during 1948 and 1949. The process of sovietization included
frequent purges of dissidents, and twice in 1949 the United States and Great Britain
accused Romania of systematic violation of human rights guarantees in the peace
treaty. In November 1950 the charge was upheld by the United Nations General Assembly.
New constitutions were adopted in 1952 and 1965, but the Soviet pattern of government
was followed in each change. Throughout the postwar period Romanian leadership
remained stable. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej (1901-65), secretary of the Communist
party since 1945, became premier in 1952. He turned the latter office over to
Chivu Stoica (1908-75) in 1955. Petru Groza, who had assumed the largely ceremonial
office of president in 1952, died in 1958 and was succeeded by Ion Gheorghe Maurer
(1902- ), who in turn became premier in 1961, Gheorghiu-Dej assuming the presidency.
At the latter's death in 1965, Stoica assumed the presidency, and Nicolae Ceauþescu
became party secretary. Ceauþescu, Maurer, and Stoica functioned as a collective
leadership, but Ceauþescu was the dominant figure, becoming president in
1967. Throughout the 1950s the government emphasized the nationalization and development
of industry. This effort proved highly successful, and in the 1960s the official
estimates of the national industrial growth rate averaged about 12 percent annuallyùamong
the highest in Eastern Europe. Agricultural collectivization was begun in July
1949, and in 1962 the government announced that all arable land had been absorbed
into the socialized sector. Farmers were permitted, however, to retain half-acre
plots for private use. In the early postwar years, under Soviet domination, Romania
cooperated fully in the Cominform, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance,
known as COMECON, or CMEA, and, after 1955, the Warsaw Pact. From the early 1960s
on, however, Romania began to exercise a considerable degree of independence.
In 1963 the government rejected COMECON plans for the integration of the economies
of the Communist states, chiefly because the plans restricted Romania to a role
as supplier of oil, grains, and primary materials. Romanians thought these plans
would hinder their rate of industrial growth, which had been higher in the past
several years than that of any other satellite country. Romanian protests gained
some concessions in the form of Soviet aid for the development of a major steel
plant at Galati. The government nevertheless issued a so-called declaration of
independence from COMECON proposals in 1964.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Foreign
affairs In 1964 Premier Maurer visited Beijing and Moscow in an unsuccessful
attempt to reconcile the two Communist powers. Thereafter, Romanian foreign policy
indicated continuing independence. Ceauþescu urged the withdrawal of Soviet
troops from East Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic of Germany),
Poland, and Hungary. Also, in the face of Soviet attempts to strengthen the Warsaw
pact, Ceauþescu suggested the abolition of the Warsaw Pact and of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization. He refused to participate in the pact maneuvers.
In mid-1967 Romania boycotted a conference of Communist countries called by the
USSR, chiefly to criticize U.S. activity in Vietnam. When the Warsaw Pact nations,
led by the Soviet Union, invaded Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia)
in August 1968, Romania took a strongly anti-Soviet stand. The 1970s
and 1980s Romania continued to pursue a nonaligned foreign policy,
despite the disapproval of the Soviet bloc. It actively increased its contacts
with the West. After a visit from U.S. President Richard Nixon in 1969, it sent
President Ceauþescu several times to the U.S.; his missions resulted in
the U.S. granting Romania ômost-favored-nationö status in 1975 and
a 10-year economic pact in 1976. Romania joined the International Monetary Fund
and the World Bank in 1972 and in 1976 signed the first formal pact (on textiles)
between the European Economic Community and an East European state. As head of
the only East European nation to recognize both Israel and Egypt, Ceauþescu
helped arrange Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat's historic peacemaking visit
to Israel in 1977. Romania signed a friendship treaty with the USSR (1970), received
Soviet Communist party chief Leonid I. Brezhnev (1976), and sent Ceauþescu
to the Soviet Union and East Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic
of Germany). Romania also made a treaty of friendship with Hungary (1972) and
agreements on hydroelectricity with Yugoslavia (1976) and Bulgaria (1977). It
joined the Communist International Investment Bank in 1971. Taking an unprecedented
step outside the Soviet bloc, Ceauþescu visited the People's Republic of
China in 1971, subsequently signing economic and air transport agreements. In
1980, he refused to endorse the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Accommodating
in foreign policy, Ceausescu strictly enforced Communist orthodoxy in domestic
affairs. In 1971 he cracked down on all deviation in party, government, and cultural
leadership. He was reelected head of state in 1975, and the party and government
were reorganized in 1977. Despite enormous damage caused by severe floods in 1970
and 1975 and an earthquake in 1977, the economy grew, especially heavy industry
and foreign trade. Real wages rose slowly, and Romania was beset with shortages
of food, fuel, and electricity in the 1980s, as Ceauþescu used virtually
all of Romania's hard currency reserves to pay off the nation's $11-billion foreign
debt. Popular resentment of the Communist leadership was aggravated by a forced
resettlement program, announced in 1988, that called for the destruction of up
to 8000 villages.
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Travel - International AIR:
Romania’s national airline is Tarom (RO). Other airlines that fly to Bucharest
include Air France, Alitalia, Austrian Airlines, British Airways, KLM, Lufthansa
and Swiss. Approximate flight times: From Bucharest to London is
3 hours 10 minutes. International airports: Bucharest (BUH) (Otopeni)
(website: http://www.otp-airport.ro/) is 16km (10 miles) north of the city (travel
time – 25 minutes). The airport has been greatly modernised in the past few years,
but some visitors may find it relatively limited compared to Western European
or American standards. A bar, snack bar, restaurant, 24-hour left luggage, 24-hour
first aid, post office, car hire and full duty-free facilities are available.
There is an express bus service (Bus no. 783) which runs every 15 minutes between
0530-2330 Mon-Fri and every 30 minutes Sat-Sun and holidays; the journey takes
approximately 40 minutes. Taxis, minibuses and limousines are available 24 hours
(travel time – 25 minutes).
There are also international airports at Constanta
(CND) (Mihail Kogalniceanu), Timisoara (TSR), Arad (ARW), Sibiu (SBZ), and Cluj
(CLJ). Departure tax: None. SEA/RIVER: The main international
passenger port is Constanta on the Black Sea. Sea ferries: Not running at present.
Contact the Romanian National Tourist Office for up-to-date information (see Contact
Addresses section). River cruises: Sailings from Passau to Constanta on the Black
Sea along the Danube are available; these stop at various places of interest,
including Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest, Bazias, Giurgiu, Calafat and Bucharest.
The cruises incorporate varied itineraries: historic towns, museums, art collections,
monasteries, spas, archaeological sites, folk evenings, nature reserves and of
course, the dramatic scenery of Eastern Europe, including the ‘Iron Gate’ through
the Carpathians. With the opening of the Main-Danube Canal, some companies now
offer travel as far west as Rotterdam along the Rhine. For further information,
contact the Romanian Tourism Promotion Office (see Contact Addresses section).
RAIL: The main international train from Western Europe to Romania
(Bucharest) is the Wiener Waltzer, which runs to Bucharest in summer only (June
to September) and includes two nights’ travel from Basel, arriving in Bucharest
two days later. There are no through carriages from Basel, which means moving
to the Bucharest coaches in Vienna. As well as day carriages, there are sleeping
cars from Vienna to both Bucharest and Constanta on the Black Sea coast. There
are also through trains from other Eastern European cities. InterRail allows unrestricted
train travel in Romania. ROAD: The most direct international routes
to Romania are via Germany, Austria and Hungary. The best route from Hungary is
the E64 from Budapest to Szeged through Arad, Brasov, Campina and Ploiesti. There
is also a route from Szeged to Timisoara. A more frequently used route from Hungary
to Germany is via the E60 through Oradea. Eurolines, departing from Victoria Coach
Station in London, serves destinations in Romania. For further information, contact
Eurolines (4 Cardiff Road, Luton, Bedfordshire, L41 1PP; tel: (08705) 143 219;
fax: (01582) 400 694; website: http://www.eurolines.com/ or http://www.nationalexpress.com/).
For permit regulations, see Documentation in Travel – Internal. |
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